[ty] Refine parameter kind handling across ty semantic analysis (#26582)
## Summary
Follow up to https://github.com/astral-sh/ruff/pull/26521: update
callable, method, override, and signature handling to account for
parameter kinds more consistently.
That PR left a number of similar cases (where we were wrongly making a
generic callable gradual after specializing it to Any) unfixed, and
introduced a `Parameter::from_annotation` method that was still wrongly
used in many non-annotation locations.
* Introduce a `Parameters::standard` helper for creating an
always-non-gradual synthetic callable. Many prior uses of
`Parameter::from_annotation` are switched to use this instead. By lines,
this is the bulk of the diff.
* Cycle normalization uses `::new` and explicitly passes on the
`ParametersKind`, rather than using `::from_annotation`.
* Introduce `::with_prefix` and `::with_transformed_parameters`
constructors for cloning existing signatures with new prefix parameters
or transformed parameters, respectively. These have only a few uses.
After this PR, `::from_annotation` is used only in cases that actually
come from user annotations directly.
## Testing
Added mdtests.